Abstract
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology can enhance grid flexibility and renewable integration, yet its economic and environmental performance remain debated. This study presents an integrated comparison of uncontrolled charging, smart charging, and V2G, combining high-resolution electric vehicle mobility simulations, electricity price–based optimisation, battery degradation modelling, and multi-indicator life cycle assessment. Charging profiles for 20 electric vehicles were simulated to quantify user-level costs and environmental impacts. Smart charging reduces total annual costs by 5–25% relative to uncontrolled charging, without significantly affecting battery lifetime. V2G further improves economic performance through energy arbitrage, achieving cost reductions of 12–42%, including the increased battery degradation. Environmentally, smart charging lowers CO₂ emissions by 15–35%, while V2G achieves reductions of up to 50% in several cases. However, certain impact categories, including land use and mineral resource depletion, increase under V2G due to battery production and accelerated replacement, highlight the trade-offs inherent in advanced charging strategies.