Abstract
This study investigated the volatile emission from apple (Malus x domestica Borkh., cv. Golden Delicious) foliage that were either intact, mechanically-injured, or exposed to larval feeding by Pandemis heparana (Denis and Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Volatiles were collected by closed-loop-stripping-analysis and characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in three time periods: after 1 hour and again 24 and 48 hours later. Volatiles for all treatments were also monitored continuously over a 72-hour period by the use of proton transfer reaction – time of flight-mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS). In addition, the volatile samples were analyzed by gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) using male and female antennae of P. heparana. Twelve compounds were detected from intact foliage compared with 23 from mechanically-injured, and 30 from P. heparana-infested foliage. Interestingly, six compounds were only released by P. heparana-infested foliage. The emission dynamics of many compounds measured by PTR-ToF-MS showed striking differences according to the timing of herbivory and the circadian cycle. For example, the emission of green leaf volatiles began shortly after the start of herbivory and increased over time independently from the light-dark cycle. Conversely, the emission of terpenes and aromatics showed a several-hour delay in response to herbivory and followed a diurnal rhythm. Methanol was the only identified volatile showing a nocturnal rhythm. Consistent GC-EAD responses were found for sixteen compounds, including five aromatics. A field trial in Sweden demonstrated that benzyl alcohol, 2-phenylethanol, phenylacetonitrile, and indole lures placed in traps were not attractive to Pandemis spp. adults, but 2-phenylethanol and phenylacetonitrile when used in combination with acetic acid were attractive to both sexes.